O movimento inspirou os jovens a acreditar que eles poderiam transformar a si mesmos — e a América.
Louis Menand
The New Yorker
A Nova Esquerda nasceu no início dos anos 1960 como uma revolta contra a universidade moderna e morreu menos de dez anos depois, no auto-de-fé do Vietnã. Embora tenha ajudado a mobilizar a opinião sobre questões como direitos civis, pobreza urbana, corrida armamentista e guerra, a Nova Esquerda nunca teve suas mãos nas alavancas do poder político. Mas mudou a política de esquerda. Fez da liberdade individual e da autenticidade os objetivos da ação política e inspirou pessoas que se importavam com injustiça e desigualdade a rejeitar o sistema existente de relações de poder e a começar de novo.
Se isso era uma fantasia, então também era a Declaração de Independência. Novos começos não são difíceis na política. Eles são impossíveis. Você pode se livrar de parte do passado, mas nunca de tudo. "Todos os homens são criados iguais" não virou a página da escravidão. Mas havia muitos que esperavam que isso acontecesse, e se não houvesse pessoas dispostas a apostar tudo em um futuro melhor — e esse era o espírito da Nova Esquerda — então não valeríamos muito como sociedade.
A Nova Esquerda surgiu independentemente em duas grandes fábricas de conhecimento do pós-guerra, a Universidade de Michigan e a Universidade da Califórnia em Berkeley. Mais de um terço de seus alunos estavam na pós-graduação ou na escola profissional. Michigan tinha mais contratos com a Administração Nacional de Aeronáutica e Espaço do que qualquer outra universidade do país. Berkeley era a principal contratada federal para pesquisa nuclear e tinha mais ganhadores do prêmio Nobel em seu corpo docente do que qualquer outra universidade do mundo.
Michigan foi o berço da maior e mais conhecida organização política estudantil da década, e provavelmente de todos os tempos: Estudantes por uma Sociedade Democrática. A S.D.S. era descendente da Liga Estudantil pela Democracia Industrial (SLID), que vinha mancando por décadas até que, em 1960, foi renomeada, com base no fato de que, como disse o primeiro presidente da S.D.S., Alan Haber, SLID era uma sigla embaraçosa para uma organização em declínio.
Haber entrou na Universidade de Michigan como estudante de graduação em 1954 (e não recebeu seu B.A. até 1965). Seu primeiro nome era Robert, em homenagem ao senador progressista Robert La Follette, de Wisconsin, e seus pais aprovaram a SLID e a política de seu filho. Ele era conhecido como o radical do campus, mas não era um engolidor de fogo. Se o S.D.S. tivesse sido associado apenas a pessoas como ele, quase certamente não teria conseguido atrair recrutas. Era necessária uma pessoa carismática que viesse do lugar de onde vinham a maioria dos estudantes das universidades públicas do Centro-Oeste nos anos 1950, as margens do mainstream americano. Tom Hayden era uma dessas pessoas.
Hayden nasceu em Royal Oak, um subúrbio de Detroit, em 1939. Seus pais eram católicos — ele recebeu o nome de São Tomás de Aquino — que, excepcionalmente, se divorciou, e Hayden foi criado principalmente por sua mãe em circunstâncias um tanto difíceis. Mas ele teve uma infância normal e se saiu bem na escola. Ele entrou em Michigan em 1957 e se tornou repórter no jornal estudantil, o Michigan Daily. Hayden não tinha ambições políticas. Em seus cursos, ele foi atraído pelos existencialistas, então muito em voga nas faculdades americanas. Mas em 1960 houve um aumento no ativismo estudantil, e Hayden, um universitário de 21 anos, independente e profissionalmente descomprometido, estava perfeitamente posicionado para ser pego por isso. "Eu não fiquei político", como ele disse. "As coisas ficaram políticas."
A inspiração para o movimento estudantil do Norte foi um movimento estudantil do Sul. Em 1º de fevereiro de 1960, quatro alunos do primeiro ano da Universidade Estadual Técnica e Agrícola da Carolina do Norte, formada exclusivamente por negros, sentaram-se em um balcão de almoço exclusivo para brancos na loja de departamentos Woolworth's no centro de Greensboro. A garçonete (que era negra) se recusou a atendê-los, então eles ficaram sentados lá o dia todo. No dia seguinte, dezenove alunos adicionais apareceram para sentar no balcão de almoço. No dia seguinte, eram oitenta e cinco. No final da semana, havia cerca de quatrocentos. Os protestos se espalharam rapidamente e, em dez semanas, o movimento levou à formação, sob a liderança da veterana dos direitos civis Ella Baker, do Comitê de Coordenação Estudantil Não Violenta (SNCC), que se tornaria uma grande organização ativista do movimento pelos direitos civis.
Em março, Haber foi ao escritório de Hayden no Daily. Ele disse a ele que os alunos de Michigan estavam fazendo piquetes nas lojas de Ann Arbor como uma demonstração de simpatia pelos alunos do Sul e sugeriu que ele cobrisse isso. Hayden escreveu algumas histórias sobre os piqueteiros, mas teve pouco impulso de se juntar a eles. Na mesma época, porém, ele leu “On the Road”, que havia sido lançado em 1957, e o livro o inspirou, como muitos outros, a pegar carona para a Califórnia. Lá, ele fez um curso rápido de política.
Em Berkeley, ele se encontrou com estudantes que se manifestaram em uma aparição em São Francisco do Comitê de Atividades Antiamericanas da Câmara (HUAC) e foram dispersos com mangueiras de incêndio pela polícia. Em Delano, ele se encontrou com organizadores de trabalhadores rurais chicanos. Em Los Angeles, na Convenção Nacional Democrata que indicou John F. Kennedy para presidente, ele entrevistou Martin Luther King Jr. Em uma conferência estudantil perto de Monterey, Hayden deu uma palestra sobre "estimulação de valor". O espírito de autodeterminação, ele disse, "se curvou à vasta expansão industrial e organizacional dos últimos 75 anos. Como resultado, a maioria dos estudantes se sente impotente para traçar a direção de sua sociedade. O propósito dos movimentos estudantis é ao mesmo tempo simples e profundo: provar que os seres humanos ainda são a medida".
A parada final na viagem de Hayden foi a conferência anual da National Student Association (N.S.A.), que estava sendo realizada na Universidade de Minnesota. Cerca de vinte e cinco membros da SNCC foram convidados. Hayden ficou emocionado em conhecê-los. “Eles viveram em um nível mais pleno de sentimento do que qualquer pessoa que eu já tenha visto”, ele escreveu mais tarde, “em parte porque estavam fazendo história moderna de uma forma muito pessoal, e em parte porque, ao arriscar a morte, eles passaram a conhecer o valor de viver cada momento ao máximo. Olhando para trás, esse foi um ponto de virada fundamental, o momento em que minha identidade política começou a tomar forma.”
A convenção da N.S.A. estava debatendo se deveria adotar uma declaração de apoio aos protestos. A questão era controversa para alguns delegados porque significava endossar ações ilegais. Uma das palestrantes a favor de uma declaração de apoio foi uma estudante branca de pós-graduação da Universidade do Texas chamada Sandra (Casey) Cason.
Cason era de Victoria, Texas. Ela encarava a segregação racial "como uma afronta pessoal", escreveu mais tarde, "vendo-a como uma restrição à minha liberdade". Mesmo antes de Greensboro, Cason havia participado de protestos contra a segregação em Austin, onde era ativa na Associação Cristã de Moças. A Universidade do Texas começou a admitir estudantes negros de graduação em 1956, mas apenas um dormitório foi desagregado, a Comunidade Cristã de Fé e Vida. Era onde Cason morava. Ela se interessou pelo existencialismo e começou a ler Camus. Depois de se formar, ela lecionou na escola bíblica no Harlem e leu James Baldwin.
“Se eu soubesse que nenhuma lanchonete abriria como resultado da minha ação, eu não poderia ter feito diferente do que fiz”, ela disse em seu discurso aos delegados da N.S.A. em Minneapolis. Ela continuou:
Sou grata pelos protestos, mesmo que não seja por outra razão, porque eles me deram a oportunidade de transformar um slogan em realidade, transformando uma decisão em ação. Parece-me que é disso que se trata a vida. Embora eu esperasse que o Congresso da N.S.A. aprovasse uma forte resolução de protesto, estou mais preocupada que todos nós, negros e brancos, percebamos a possibilidade de nos tornarmos humanos menos desumanos por meio do comprometimento e da ação, com todas as suas assustadoras complexidades.
Quando Thoreau foi preso por se recusar a pagar impostos a um governo que apoiava a escravidão, Emerson foi visitá-lo. “Henry David”, disse Emerson, “o que você está fazendo aí?” Thoreau olhou para ele e respondeu: “Ralph Waldo, o que você está fazendo aí?”
Ela fez uma pausa e então repetiu a última linha. Houve uma ovação. A convenção endossou os protestos por 305-37 votos.
Hayden ficou atordoado. Em quase qualquer organização política de esquerda anterior, o discurso de Cason teria sido descartado como uma expressão de individualismo burguês. Mas ela estava contando exatamente o que Hayden estava contando em Monterey. Ela estava dizendo aos alunos que isso era sobre eles.
É duvidoso que os manifestantes negros que foram insultados, atacados com mangueiras, espancados e presos sentissem que estavam a conhecer “o valor de viver cada momento ao máximo”. Pessoas como Cason e Hayden preocupavam-se com a injustiça, mas o apelo fundamental da política para eles era existencial. “Éramos parecidos. . . em nosso senso de aventura moral, nossa sensibilidade existencial, nosso amor pela ação poética e nosso sentimento de envolvimento romântico”, escreveu Hayden sobre o encontro com Cason. Ele agora estava pronto para ingressar no S.D.S.
Ele cortejou Cason enviando-lhe caixas de livros, incluindo “Siddhartha” de Hermann Hesse, que ele sublinhou freneticamente. Eles se casaram em 1961 e acabaram se mudando para Nova York, e foi lá, em um apartamento ferroviário na West Twenty-second Street Street, que Hayden escreveu o primeiro rascunho do que seria conhecido como a Declaração de Port Huron. “Fui profundamente influenciado por 'The Power Elite'”, disse Hayden, e o efeito do livro de C. Wright Mills de 1956 é óbvio.
Mills, que nasceu em Waco, Texas, em 1916, era um homem grande e enérgico, o tipo de pessoa que constrói seus próprios móveis. Ele também era disciplinado, organizado e prolífico. Na época em que morreu, de um ataque cardíaco, em aos quarenta e cinco anos, ele havia escrito mais de meia dúzia de livros.
Mills passou a maior parte de sua carreira na Columbia. Ele era conscientemente um rebelde, e não tinha escrúpulos em criticar seus colegas, alguns dos quais estavam felizes em retribuir o favor. Como sociólogo e crítico social — os papéis eram os mesmos para ele — Mills estava interessado no problema de poder. E ele chegou a sentir que houve uma mudança nas relações de poder nos Estados Unidos, causada pelo que ele chamou de “a nova posição internacional dos Estados Unidos” — isto é, a Guerra Fria.
Em “The Power Elite, ” Mills argumentou que o poder estava nas mãos de três instituições: “o diretório político”, “os ricos corporativos” e os militares. O poder do primeiro grupo, os políticos, havia diminuído em relação ao poder dos outros dois, a quem ele chamou de “chefes corporativos” e “senhores da guerra profissionais”. Mas o mais significativo era que os três grupos não tinham interesses rivais: eles constituíam uma única classe dominante homogênea cujos membros, praticamente todos protestantes brancos do sexo masculino, circulavam de uma instituição para outra. Dwight Eisenhower estava na elite militar, depois se tornou presidente e encheu seu gabinete com chefes corporativos.
Mills nunca explicou exatamente quais eram os interesses da elite do poder, ou apenas qual era sua ideologia. Mas a ideologia não era o que o envolvia. Ele acreditava, como John Dewey acreditava, que a participação democrática é um constituinte essencial da auto-realização, quaisquer que sejam as decisões tomadas coletivamente. Mills concluiu que a democracia americana nesse sentido estava quebrada. “Homens comuns”, ele escreveu, “frequentemente parecem movidos por forças que não podem compreender nem governar... A própria estrutura da sociedade moderna os confina a projetos não seus, mas de todos os lados, tais mudanças agora pressionam os homens e mulheres da sociedade de massas que, consequentemente, sentem que não têm propósito em uma época em que eles estão sem poder.” (Embora Mills tenha crescido em um estado de Jim Crow, “The Power Elite” não tem nada a dizer sobre relações raciais.)
A Declaração de Port Huron ecoa Mills. Diz que a Guerra Fria fez dos militares o poder dominante no que Hayden chamou (em homenagem a Mills) de “as relações triangulares das arenas empresarial, militar e política”. As necessidades domésticas, desde a habitação e os cuidados de saúde aos direitos das minorias, eram todas subordinado “ao objetivo principal da 'força militar e econômica do Mundo Livre'”. A Guerra Fria estava tornando os Estados Unidos antidemocráticos.
Quem poderia ser o agente da mudança em tal regime? A classe trabalhadora é o agente da mudança na teoria esquerdista, uma teoria à qual organizações como a League for Industrial Democracy (a progenitora e patrocinadora do SLID) permaneceram fiéis. A essa altura de sua carreira, porém, Mills não tinha utilidade para o trabalho organizado. Líderes trabalhistas sentavam-se à mesa com o resto da elite do poder, ele disse, mas não desempenhavam nenhum papel real na tomada de decisões. A fé na missão revolucionária do proletariado pertencia ao que ele chamava de "metafísica do trabalho", uma relíquia vitoriana. Mills não estava realmente interessado em riqueza e desigualdade de renda de qualquer maneira. Ele estava interessado em desigualdade de poder. Mas ele não tinha candidato para um agente de mudança.
No outono de 1956, Mills foi para a Universidade de Copenhague com uma bolsa Fulbright e viajou pela Europa (às vezes em uma motocicleta BMW que ele comprou em Munique e que se tornou um ingrediente icônico em sua persona). Em 1957, ele deu uma palestra na London School of Economics. Essa visita foi sua introdução à esquerda intelectual na Grã-Bretanha, e ele e seus anfitriões se deram bem. Mills ficou decepcionado com a recepção de “The Power Elite” nos Estados Unidos; na Grã-Bretanha, ele encontrou pessoas que pensavam como ele. “Fiquei muito animado com a forma como meu tipo de coisa é aceito lá”, ele escreveu a um amigo americano.
Os intelectuais britânicos pelos quais Mills foi atraído — entre eles, o teórico cultural Stuart Hall, o historiador E. P. Thompson e o sociólogo Ralph Miliband — estavam se autodenominando a Nova Esquerda. Eles eram mais marxistas do que Mills, mas acreditavam que a cultura e a ideologia haviam se tornado tão importantes quanto a classe na determinação do curso da história.
Mills retornou à L.S.E. em 1959 para dar três palestras intituladas “Cultura e Política”. (“Um enorme e alarmante texano acaba de dar uma palestra na London School of Economics”, relatou o Observer.) No ano seguinte, Mills escreveu um artigo para o periódico britânico New Left Review, que Thompson e Hall haviam fundado. “Tenho estudado, há vários anos, o aparato cultural, os intelectuais — como uma possível, imediata e radical agência de mudança”, ele escreveu. “Por muito tempo, não fiquei muito mais feliz com essa ideia do que muitos de vocês; mas acontece agora, na primavera de 1960, que pode ser uma ideia muito relevante de fato.” Viajando para o exterior, ele passou a acreditar que os jovens intelectuais eram capazes de esclarecer e mobilizar o público. O artigo foi chamado de “Carta à Nova Esquerda”.
A “Carta” de Mills foi ridicularizada por seu colega da Columbia, Daniel Bell, que chamou Mills de “uma espécie de conselheiro docente para os ‘jovens raivosos’ e ‘aspirantes a raivosos’ do mundo ocidental”. Mas a “Carta” foi adotada pela S.D.S., que circulou cópias entre seus membros e a reimprimiu em um periódico, Studies on the Left, lançado por estudantes de pós-graduação na Universidade de Wisconsin. “Ele parecia estar falando conosco diretamente”, escreveu Hayden sobre a “Carta”. Mills tinha “identificado a nós mesmos, os jovens e os intelectuais, como a nova vanguarda”.
Esta era uma leitura errada e otimista. Mills não tinha os americanos em mente. Ele estava respondendo aos acontecimentos na Grã-Bretanha, em países do Bloco Oriental, como Polônia e Hungria, e na América Latina. Seu próximo livro, “Listen, Yankee”, era uma defesa da revolução de Castro. Esses eram os jovens intelectuais a quem ele estava se referindo.
Nevertheless, Hayden was inspired to compose his own “Letter to the New (Young) Left,” in which he complained about the “endless repressions of free speech and thought” on campus and “the stifling paternalism that infects the student’s whole perception of what is real and possible.” Students needed to organize, he said. They could draw on “what remains of the adult labor, academic and political communities,” but it was to be a student movement. “Young,” in Hayden’s “Letter,” meant “student.”
What was needed, Hayden said, was not a new political program. What was needed was a radical style. “Radicalism of style demands that we oppose delusions and be free,” he wrote. “It demands that we change our life.” Not having a program meant keeping the future “up for grabs.” This approach meant that direct actions, like campus sit-ins, undertaken for one cause (for example, abolishing R.O.T.C.) would find themselves being piggybacked by very different causes (for example, stopping university expansion into Black neighborhoods, as happened at Columbia in 1968 and Harvard in 1969). Demands kept multiplying. This was not because events got out of the organizers’ control. It was the way the New Left was designed. Policies weren’t the problem. The system was the problem.
Ironically, or perhaps fittingly, the S.D.S. convention at which Hayden’s statement was adopted was held at an educational camp in Port Huron, Michigan, that had been loaned to the group by the United Auto Workers. For the Port Huron Statement represents the American left’s farewell to the labor movement. The statement did end up containing a section supporting unions, but that was added at the demand of the students’ League for Industrial Democracy sponsors. Critical remarks about the Soviet Union were added for the same reason. Yet those preoccupations—the working class and Stalinism—were precisely what the students wanted to be rid of. “Dead issues,” Casey Hayden called the concern about Communism. “I didn’t know any communists, only their children, who were just part of our gang.” The students did not think of themselves as pro-Communist. They thought of themselves as anti-anti-Communist. To older left-wing intellectuals, that amounted to the same thing. Hence the New Left slogan “Don’t trust anyone over thirty.” It meant “Don’t trust an old socialist.”
The Port Huron convention began on June 12, 1962, with fifty-nine registered participants from S.D.S.’s eleven chapters. (There were eventually more than three hundred. The military escalation of the war in Vietnam, beginning in 1965, turbocharged the movement, particularly among male students, who were subject to the draft.) Participatory democracy—“democracy is in the streets”—and authenticity were the core principles of Hayden’s forty-nine-page draft. In that spirit, the delegates debated the entire document, section by section. “The goal of man and society should be human independence: a concern not with image of popularity but with finding a meaning in life that is personally authentic,” the statement says. Since pure democracy and genuine authenticity are conditions that can only be reached for, never fully achieved, this was a formula for lifelong commitment. It asked you to question everything.
Still, the statement does not call for revolution or even an end to capitalism. Its politics are progressive: regulate private enterprise, shift spending from arms to domestic needs, expand democratic participation in the workplace and public policymaking, support decolonization movements, and advance civil rights by ridding the Democratic Party of its Southern segregationists, the Dixiecrats. (That problem took care of itself in the 1964 Presidential election, when the South began to flip from blue to red.)
But the statement begins and ends with the university:
Our professors and administrators sacrifice controversy to public relations; their curriculums change more slowly than the living events of the world; their skills and silence are purchased by investors in the arms race; passion is called unscholastic. The questions we might want raised—what is really important? Can we live in a different and better way? If we wanted to change society, how would we do it?—are not thought to be questions of a “fruitful, empirical nature,” and thus are brushed aside.
The university has become a mechanism of social reproduction. It “ ‘prepares’ the student for ‘citizenship’ through perpetual rehearsals and, usually, through emasculation of what creative spirit there is in the individual. . . . That which is studied, the social reality, is ‘objectified’ to sterility, dividing the student from life.” And academic research serves the power élite. “Many social and physical scientists,” the statement says, “neglecting the liberating heritage of higher learning, develop ‘human relations’ or ‘morale-producing’ techniques for the corporate economy, while others exercise their intellectual skills to accelerate the arms race.” These functions are all masked by the academic ideology of disinterestedness.
At the end of the statement, though, the university is reimagined as “a potential base and agency in a movement of social change.” Academics can perform the role that Mills accused American intellectuals of abandoning: enlightening the public. For this to happen, students and faculty, in alliance, “must wrest control of the educational process from the administrative bureaucracy. . . . They must make debate and controversy, not dull pedantic cant, the common style for educational life.”
The Port Huron deliberations lasted three days. They ended at dawn. Hayden was elected president of S.D.S. (Haber was happy to return to being an undergraduate), and the delegates walked together to the shore of Lake Huron, where they stood in silence, holding hands. “It was exalting,” one of them, Sharon Jeffrey, said later. “We felt that we were different, and that we were going to do things differently. We thought that we knew what had to be done, and that we were going to do it. It felt like the dawn of a new age.”
Still, the statement does not call for revolution or even an end to capitalism. Its politics are progressive: regulate private enterprise, shift spending from arms to domestic needs, expand democratic participation in the workplace and public policymaking, support decolonization movements, and advance civil rights by ridding the Democratic Party of its Southern segregationists, the Dixiecrats. (That problem took care of itself in the 1964 Presidential election, when the South began to flip from blue to red.)
But the statement begins and ends with the university:
Our professors and administrators sacrifice controversy to public relations; their curriculums change more slowly than the living events of the world; their skills and silence are purchased by investors in the arms race; passion is called unscholastic. The questions we might want raised—what is really important? Can we live in a different and better way? If we wanted to change society, how would we do it?—are not thought to be questions of a “fruitful, empirical nature,” and thus are brushed aside.
The university has become a mechanism of social reproduction. It “ ‘prepares’ the student for ‘citizenship’ through perpetual rehearsals and, usually, through emasculation of what creative spirit there is in the individual. . . . That which is studied, the social reality, is ‘objectified’ to sterility, dividing the student from life.” And academic research serves the power élite. “Many social and physical scientists,” the statement says, “neglecting the liberating heritage of higher learning, develop ‘human relations’ or ‘morale-producing’ techniques for the corporate economy, while others exercise their intellectual skills to accelerate the arms race.” These functions are all masked by the academic ideology of disinterestedness.
At the end of the statement, though, the university is reimagined as “a potential base and agency in a movement of social change.” Academics can perform the role that Mills accused American intellectuals of abandoning: enlightening the public. For this to happen, students and faculty, in alliance, “must wrest control of the educational process from the administrative bureaucracy. . . . They must make debate and controversy, not dull pedantic cant, the common style for educational life.”
The Port Huron deliberations lasted three days. They ended at dawn. Hayden was elected president of S.D.S. (Haber was happy to return to being an undergraduate), and the delegates walked together to the shore of Lake Huron, where they stood in silence, holding hands. “It was exalting,” one of them, Sharon Jeffrey, said later. “We felt that we were different, and that we were going to do things differently. We thought that we knew what had to be done, and that we were going to do it. It felt like the dawn of a new age.”
Tom Hayden’s charisma was the cool kind. He was lucid and unflappable. Mario Savio’s charisma was hot. Savio’s gifts were as a speaker, not as a negotiator. He channelled anger. Savio’s politics, like Hayden’s, were a kind of existentialist anti-politics. “I am not a political person,” he said in 1965, a few months after becoming famous as the face of the Berkeley Free Speech Movement (F.S.M.), something most people would have called political. “What was it Kierkegaard said about free acts? They’re the ones that, looking back, you realize you couldn’t help doing.”
Savio was born in New York City in 1942. His family were immigrants, and Italian was his first language. When he learned English, he developed a fairly severe speech impediment, which may have helped make possible his later renown as the greatest orator of the American New Left, since he was forced to concentrate on his enunciation.
Savio entered Berkeley as a junior. The campus appealed to him in part because he had heard about the student protests against HUAC that had been broken up with fire hoses. His first campus political activity was attending meetings of the University Friends of SNCC. He agitated for civil rights in the Bay Area, and in 1964 he went to Mississippi to participate in Freedom Summer. Soon after he returned to Berkeley, the Free Speech Movement began.
It seemed to erupt spontaneously. That was part of its appeal and part of its mystique: no one planned it, and no one ran it. It had no connection to S.D.S. or any other national political group. The reason is that the F.S.M. was a parochial affair. It was not a war for social justice. It was a war against the university administration.
The fuse had been lit long before 1964. The administration’s tensions with faculty dated to a controversy over loyalty oaths in 1949, which had led to the firing of thirty-one professors; its tensions with students dated to the emergence of an activist organization that participated in student-government elections in the late fifties.
The administration was hostile to political activity on campus for two reasons. The first had to do with the principle of disinterestedness, which called for partisan politics to be kept out of scholarship and the classroom. But there was a more pragmatic reason as well. U.C. administrators were wary of the system’s Board of Regents, many of whom were conservative businessmen. Joseph McCarthy was dead, but HUAC, though increasingly zombie-like, lumbered on. So political activity on campus was banned or tightly regulated—not only student organizations, leafletting, and the like but also outside political speakers. It wasn’t that administrators did not want dissent. It was that they did not want trouble.
Until the fall semester in 1964, students had been allowed to set up tables representing political causes on a twenty-six-foot strip of sidewalk just outside campus, on the corner of Telegraph Avenue and Bancroft Way. One day, a vice-chancellor, Alex C. Sherriffs, whose office was in Sproul Hall, the administration building that adjoined the area with the tables, decided that the spectacle was a bad look for the university. He conveyed his concern to his colleagues, and on September 16th the university announced a ban on tables and political activities on that stretch of sidewalk.
Representatives of student organizations, when their appeals proved unavailing, began picketing. On September 30th, in violation of the ban, organizations set up tables at Sather Gate, on the Berkeley campus. University officials took the names of students who were staffing tables and informed them they would be disciplined. Students responded by staging a brief sit-in outside the dean’s office. The next day, tables were set up again on campus and, at 11:45 a.m., university police arrested Jack Weinberg for trespassing.
Weinberg was a former Berkeley mathematics student who had been soliciting funds for the Congress of Racial Equality at the foot of the steps to Sproul Hall. (He was also the person who coined the slogan about not trusting anyone over thirty.) When he was arrested, he went limp, and officers placed him in a police car that had been driven into the middle of Sproul Plaza. Students immediately surrounded the car; eventually, there were more than seven thousand people in the plaza. Some of them climbed onto the roof, with Weinberg still inside, to make speeches. That roof was where Savio made his oratorical début. Weinberg remained sitting in that car until seven-thirty the next evening.
While he was there, student leaders met with administrators, now led by the president of the entire U.C. system, Clark Kerr, and negotiated an agreement for handling Weinberg, the students who had been disciplined for violating the ban on tables, and the students who were preventing the police from moving the car. The agreement also revisited the rules for on-campus political activities.
Savio was born in New York City in 1942. His family were immigrants, and Italian was his first language. When he learned English, he developed a fairly severe speech impediment, which may have helped make possible his later renown as the greatest orator of the American New Left, since he was forced to concentrate on his enunciation.
Savio entered Berkeley as a junior. The campus appealed to him in part because he had heard about the student protests against HUAC that had been broken up with fire hoses. His first campus political activity was attending meetings of the University Friends of SNCC. He agitated for civil rights in the Bay Area, and in 1964 he went to Mississippi to participate in Freedom Summer. Soon after he returned to Berkeley, the Free Speech Movement began.
It seemed to erupt spontaneously. That was part of its appeal and part of its mystique: no one planned it, and no one ran it. It had no connection to S.D.S. or any other national political group. The reason is that the F.S.M. was a parochial affair. It was not a war for social justice. It was a war against the university administration.
The fuse had been lit long before 1964. The administration’s tensions with faculty dated to a controversy over loyalty oaths in 1949, which had led to the firing of thirty-one professors; its tensions with students dated to the emergence of an activist organization that participated in student-government elections in the late fifties.
The administration was hostile to political activity on campus for two reasons. The first had to do with the principle of disinterestedness, which called for partisan politics to be kept out of scholarship and the classroom. But there was a more pragmatic reason as well. U.C. administrators were wary of the system’s Board of Regents, many of whom were conservative businessmen. Joseph McCarthy was dead, but HUAC, though increasingly zombie-like, lumbered on. So political activity on campus was banned or tightly regulated—not only student organizations, leafletting, and the like but also outside political speakers. It wasn’t that administrators did not want dissent. It was that they did not want trouble.
Until the fall semester in 1964, students had been allowed to set up tables representing political causes on a twenty-six-foot strip of sidewalk just outside campus, on the corner of Telegraph Avenue and Bancroft Way. One day, a vice-chancellor, Alex C. Sherriffs, whose office was in Sproul Hall, the administration building that adjoined the area with the tables, decided that the spectacle was a bad look for the university. He conveyed his concern to his colleagues, and on September 16th the university announced a ban on tables and political activities on that stretch of sidewalk.
Representatives of student organizations, when their appeals proved unavailing, began picketing. On September 30th, in violation of the ban, organizations set up tables at Sather Gate, on the Berkeley campus. University officials took the names of students who were staffing tables and informed them they would be disciplined. Students responded by staging a brief sit-in outside the dean’s office. The next day, tables were set up again on campus and, at 11:45 a.m., university police arrested Jack Weinberg for trespassing.
Weinberg was a former Berkeley mathematics student who had been soliciting funds for the Congress of Racial Equality at the foot of the steps to Sproul Hall. (He was also the person who coined the slogan about not trusting anyone over thirty.) When he was arrested, he went limp, and officers placed him in a police car that had been driven into the middle of Sproul Plaza. Students immediately surrounded the car; eventually, there were more than seven thousand people in the plaza. Some of them climbed onto the roof, with Weinberg still inside, to make speeches. That roof was where Savio made his oratorical début. Weinberg remained sitting in that car until seven-thirty the next evening.
While he was there, student leaders met with administrators, now led by the president of the entire U.C. system, Clark Kerr, and negotiated an agreement for handling Weinberg, the students who had been disciplined for violating the ban on tables, and the students who were preventing the police from moving the car. The agreement also revisited the rules for on-campus political activities.
Kerr was the perfect antagonist for Savio, because Kerr had literally written the book on the postwar university: “The Uses of the University,” published in 1963. “The Uses of the University” basically transcribes three lectures Kerr gave at Harvard, in which he described the transformations in higher education that led to what he called “the multiversity” or “the federal grant university.” The text became a bible for educators, revised and reprinted five times. Savio called Kerr “the foremost ideologist of [the] ‘Brave New World’ conception of education.”
As his book’s title suggests, Kerr’s view of the university was instrumental. The institution could grow and become all things to all people because it was intertwined with the state. It operated as a factory for the production of knowledge and of future knowledge producers. In the nineteen-sixties, undergraduate enrollments doubled, but the number of doctoral degrees awarded tripled. These graduate students were the experts, Kerr thought, that society needed. The president of a modern university, he argued, is therefore basically a mediator.
“Mediator” was a term Kerr later regretted using, for it exposed exactly the weakness that Hayden and Savio had identified in higher education: the absence of values, the soullessness of the institution. Kerr was not unmindful of this grievance. The transformation of the university had done undergraduates “little good,” he admitted. “The students find themselves under a blanket of impersonal rules for admissions, for scholarships, for examinations, for degrees. It is interesting to watch how a faculty intent on few rules for itself can fashion such a plethora of them for the students.”
“Interesting to watch” is mediator talk. Kerr even had a premonition of how the problem might play out. “If federal grants for research brought a major revolution,” he wrote, “then the resultant student sense of neglect may bring a minor counterrevolt, although the target of the revolt is a most elusive one.” Unless, of course, the university gives the students the target. A ban on tables was such a target.
“Do I have to eat the cherry?”
Cartoon by Barbara Smaller
Copy link to cartoon
Link copiedShop
Open cartoon gallery
The students involved in the Sproul Plaza “stand-in” didn’t trust Kerr. They suspected he would manipulate the processes he had agreed to so that the students could be disciplined and restrictions on political activity would remain. They probably were right: Kerr seems to have underestimated the strength of student support for the activists all along. So the activists continued to strategize, and, amid the action, they came up with a name for their movement.
“The Free Speech Movement” was an inspired choice. The students didn’t really want free speech, or only free speech. They wanted institutional and social change. But they pursued a tactic aimed at co-opting the faculty. The faculty had good reasons for caution about associating themselves with controversial political positions. But free speech was what the United States stood for. It was the banner carried into the battles against McCarthyism and loyalty oaths. Free speech was a cause no liberal could in good conscience resist.
Another way to gain faculty support was to get the administration to call in the police. No faculty wants campus disputes resolved by state force. At Berkeley, this was especially true for émigré professors, who knew what it was like to live in a police state. Astonishingly, the administration walked right into the trap.
The F.S.M. continued to hold rallies in Sproul Plaza, using the university’s own sound equipment. And since most students walked through the plaza at some point, the rallies attracted large crowds. Tables reappeared on campus, and the organizers were sometimes summoned for disciplinary action and sometimes not. On November 20th, three thousand people marched from Sather Gate to University Hall, where a meeting of the regents was taking place. Five F.S.M. representatives were let in but were not allowed to speak. By then, the F.S.M. had attracted members of the faculty and a range of students, from the conservative Mona Hutchin, of the Young Republicans, to the communist revolutionary Bob Avakian. Free speech was a cause that united them all.
Then Kerr overplayed his hand. On November 28th, disciplinary action was announced against Savio and another student, Arthur Goldberg, for the entrapment of the police car on October 1st, among other malfeasances. On December 1st, the F.S.M. demanded that the charges against Savio and Goldberg be dropped, that restrictions on political speech be abolished, and that the administration refrain from further disciplining students for political activity. If these demands were not met, the group promised to take “direct action.”
The demands were not met. A huge rally was held in Sproul Plaza the next day, leading to the occupation of Sproul Hall by a thousand people. Before they entered the building, Savio gave a speech, recorded and broadcast by KPFA, in Berkeley. He depicted the university as an industrial firm, with autocratic governance:
I ask you to consider: If this is a firm, and if the Board of Regents are the board of directors; and if President Kerr in fact is the manager; then I’ll tell you something. The faculty are a bunch of employees, and we’re the raw material! But we’re a bunch of raw materials that don’t mean to be—have any process upon us. Don’t mean to be made into any product. Don’t mean . . . Don’t mean to end up being bought by some clients of the University, be they the government, be they industry, be they organized labor, be they anyone! We’re human beings!
There’s a time when the operation of the machine becomes so odious, makes you so sick at heart, that you can’t take part! You can’t even passively take part! And you’ve got to put your bodies upon the gears and upon the wheels . . . upon the levers, upon all the apparatus, and you’ve got to make it stop! And you’ve got to indicate to the people who run it, to the people who own it, that unless you’re free, the machine will be prevented from working at all!
The transformation of students at élite universities into a new working class (with an echo of Charlie Chaplin in “Modern Times”) was complete.
As Joan Baez sang “We Shall Overcome” (a civil-rights anthem, but originally a song of the labor movement), the students proceeded to occupy the four floors of Sproul Hall. Shortly after three o’clock the following morning, hundreds of police officers stormed the building and arrested about eight hundred people, the largest mass arrest in California history. Protesters passively resisted; police responded by throwing the men down the stairs. It was not until 4 p.m. that the last protester was removed.
There was a meeting of more than eight hundred professors and instructors, and they voted by an overwhelming margin to support the students’ demands. On January 2, 1965, the regents announced the replacement of the school’s chancellor, and a liberal policy on political activity was unveiled the next day, a clear signal of capitulation. Unrest at Berkeley was by no means at an end. The war in Vietnam would see to that. Nor were the repercussions over. In 1967, Savio served four months in prison for his role in the Sproul Hall sit-in. But Kerr had done what the F.S.M. had hoped he would do: he had radicalized the faculty.
As his book’s title suggests, Kerr’s view of the university was instrumental. The institution could grow and become all things to all people because it was intertwined with the state. It operated as a factory for the production of knowledge and of future knowledge producers. In the nineteen-sixties, undergraduate enrollments doubled, but the number of doctoral degrees awarded tripled. These graduate students were the experts, Kerr thought, that society needed. The president of a modern university, he argued, is therefore basically a mediator.
“Mediator” was a term Kerr later regretted using, for it exposed exactly the weakness that Hayden and Savio had identified in higher education: the absence of values, the soullessness of the institution. Kerr was not unmindful of this grievance. The transformation of the university had done undergraduates “little good,” he admitted. “The students find themselves under a blanket of impersonal rules for admissions, for scholarships, for examinations, for degrees. It is interesting to watch how a faculty intent on few rules for itself can fashion such a plethora of them for the students.”
“Interesting to watch” is mediator talk. Kerr even had a premonition of how the problem might play out. “If federal grants for research brought a major revolution,” he wrote, “then the resultant student sense of neglect may bring a minor counterrevolt, although the target of the revolt is a most elusive one.” Unless, of course, the university gives the students the target. A ban on tables was such a target.
“Do I have to eat the cherry?”
Cartoon by Barbara Smaller
Copy link to cartoon
Link copiedShop
Open cartoon gallery
The students involved in the Sproul Plaza “stand-in” didn’t trust Kerr. They suspected he would manipulate the processes he had agreed to so that the students could be disciplined and restrictions on political activity would remain. They probably were right: Kerr seems to have underestimated the strength of student support for the activists all along. So the activists continued to strategize, and, amid the action, they came up with a name for their movement.
“The Free Speech Movement” was an inspired choice. The students didn’t really want free speech, or only free speech. They wanted institutional and social change. But they pursued a tactic aimed at co-opting the faculty. The faculty had good reasons for caution about associating themselves with controversial political positions. But free speech was what the United States stood for. It was the banner carried into the battles against McCarthyism and loyalty oaths. Free speech was a cause no liberal could in good conscience resist.
Another way to gain faculty support was to get the administration to call in the police. No faculty wants campus disputes resolved by state force. At Berkeley, this was especially true for émigré professors, who knew what it was like to live in a police state. Astonishingly, the administration walked right into the trap.
The F.S.M. continued to hold rallies in Sproul Plaza, using the university’s own sound equipment. And since most students walked through the plaza at some point, the rallies attracted large crowds. Tables reappeared on campus, and the organizers were sometimes summoned for disciplinary action and sometimes not. On November 20th, three thousand people marched from Sather Gate to University Hall, where a meeting of the regents was taking place. Five F.S.M. representatives were let in but were not allowed to speak. By then, the F.S.M. had attracted members of the faculty and a range of students, from the conservative Mona Hutchin, of the Young Republicans, to the communist revolutionary Bob Avakian. Free speech was a cause that united them all.
Then Kerr overplayed his hand. On November 28th, disciplinary action was announced against Savio and another student, Arthur Goldberg, for the entrapment of the police car on October 1st, among other malfeasances. On December 1st, the F.S.M. demanded that the charges against Savio and Goldberg be dropped, that restrictions on political speech be abolished, and that the administration refrain from further disciplining students for political activity. If these demands were not met, the group promised to take “direct action.”
The demands were not met. A huge rally was held in Sproul Plaza the next day, leading to the occupation of Sproul Hall by a thousand people. Before they entered the building, Savio gave a speech, recorded and broadcast by KPFA, in Berkeley. He depicted the university as an industrial firm, with autocratic governance:
I ask you to consider: If this is a firm, and if the Board of Regents are the board of directors; and if President Kerr in fact is the manager; then I’ll tell you something. The faculty are a bunch of employees, and we’re the raw material! But we’re a bunch of raw materials that don’t mean to be—have any process upon us. Don’t mean to be made into any product. Don’t mean . . . Don’t mean to end up being bought by some clients of the University, be they the government, be they industry, be they organized labor, be they anyone! We’re human beings!
There’s a time when the operation of the machine becomes so odious, makes you so sick at heart, that you can’t take part! You can’t even passively take part! And you’ve got to put your bodies upon the gears and upon the wheels . . . upon the levers, upon all the apparatus, and you’ve got to make it stop! And you’ve got to indicate to the people who run it, to the people who own it, that unless you’re free, the machine will be prevented from working at all!
The transformation of students at élite universities into a new working class (with an echo of Charlie Chaplin in “Modern Times”) was complete.
As Joan Baez sang “We Shall Overcome” (a civil-rights anthem, but originally a song of the labor movement), the students proceeded to occupy the four floors of Sproul Hall. Shortly after three o’clock the following morning, hundreds of police officers stormed the building and arrested about eight hundred people, the largest mass arrest in California history. Protesters passively resisted; police responded by throwing the men down the stairs. It was not until 4 p.m. that the last protester was removed.
There was a meeting of more than eight hundred professors and instructors, and they voted by an overwhelming margin to support the students’ demands. On January 2, 1965, the regents announced the replacement of the school’s chancellor, and a liberal policy on political activity was unveiled the next day, a clear signal of capitulation. Unrest at Berkeley was by no means at an end. The war in Vietnam would see to that. Nor were the repercussions over. In 1967, Savio served four months in prison for his role in the Sproul Hall sit-in. But Kerr had done what the F.S.M. had hoped he would do: he had radicalized the faculty.
O movimento que começou em Port Huron e Berkeley logo foi sugado para o turbilhão político do final dos anos 60. Em março de 1965, os Estados Unidos começaram sua imensa campanha de bombardeio contra o Vietnã do Norte, a Operação Rolling Thunder. Naquele mês, fuzileiros navais desembarcaram perto de Da Nang, as primeiras tropas de combate americanas no Vietnã. Em 1968, haveria mais de meio milhão de soldados americanos lá. Em 1966, Stokely Carmichael introduziu o slogan “Black Power” e substituiu John Lewis como presidente do SNCC, que começou a recusar voluntários brancos. O Partido dos Panteras Negras foi fundado no mesmo ano. O movimento das mulheres e, depois de 1969, o movimento de libertação gay, representando grupos subordinados aos quais a Nova Esquerda havia dado pouca atenção, ocuparam o centro do palco. A militância assumiu o controle, os liberais foram expulsos e a política americana mergulhou no caos.
Em retrospecto, a ruptura da Nova Esquerda com o movimento trabalhista parece um erro de cálculo desastroso, talvez arrogante. Assim como seu apoio ao regime de Hanói, que, depois de finalmente unir o país, em 1975, transformou o Vietnã em um estado totalitário. Mas a Nova Esquerda nunca teve nenhuma carta política para jogar. Sempre foi um movimento estudantil. Hoje, a esquerda tem a ala progressista do Partido Democrata para transformar seus ideais em política. Não havia tal ala em 1962.
Ainda assim, o espírito de Port Huron e do F.S.M. não foi esquecido. Os estudantes envolvidos experimentaram um sentimento de libertação pessoal por meio da solidariedade do grupo, uma sensação amplamente ilusória, mas genuinamente comovente, de que o mundo estava girando sob seus pés em marcha. Essa sensação — a sensação de que suas palavras e ações importam, de que você importa — é o que inspira as pessoas a correr riscos e dá aos movimentos de mudança seu ímpeto.
“Como posso chamar isso: o espanto existencial de estar no The Edge, onde a realidade se abre no verdadeiro Caos antes de ser reformada?”, escreveu um dos líderes do FSM, Michael Rossman, dez anos depois:
Nunca encontrei palavras para descrever o que ainda é meu sentimento mais vívido do FSM... a sensação de que a superfície da realidade havia de alguma forma desaparecido completamente. Nada mais era o que parecia. Objetos, encontros, eventos, tudo se tornou misterioso, grávido de implicações inomináveis, capazes de metamorfoses surpreendentes.
O historiador musical Greil Marcus era um estudante de graduação em Berkeley em 1964. Ele descreveu a experiência de comícios e reuniões de massa desta forma:
Sua própria história estava em pedaços no chão, e você tinha a opção de pegar os pedaços ou ignorá-los. Nada era trivial, nada incidental. Tudo se conectava a uma totalidade, e a totalidade era como você queria viver: como sujeito ou como objeto da história. ... À medida que a conversa se expandia, o poder institucional e histórico se dissolvia. As pessoas faziam e diziam coisas que faziam suas vidas de algumas semanas antes parecerem irreais — elas faziam e diziam coisas que, não muito tempo depois, pareceriam ainda mais.
Essas reminiscências podem parecer românticas. Elas são românticas. Mas elas expressam a premissa central do pensamento de esquerda, a premissa central de Marx: as coisas não precisam ser do jeito que são.
A nação estava em uma encruzilhada na década de 1960. O sistema não quebrou, mas se dobrou. Estamos em outra encruzilhada hoje. Ele pode ser dobrado novamente. ♦
Louis Menand é redator da equipe do The New Yorker. Seus livros incluem “The Free World: Art and Thought in the Cold War”, lançado em 2021, e “The Metaphysical Club”, que recebeu o Prêmio Pulitzer de história.
Nenhum comentário:
Postar um comentário